© 2009 Jan Herca (license Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0)
After the period of the Jewish people in exile and until Hellenistic times, the undisputed leadership group in Israel was the priests. They organized the new community, they perpetuated the teachings of the Torah, and in their hands lay both the spiritual and material direction of the community.
Gradually, with the passage of time, a group of scribes or teachers formed alongside the group of priests, especially from the period of the Maccabees onwards. However, although this meant a decrease in the power of the priests in terms of leadership in the teaching of the Torah, it did not entail any setback in the rest of their powers. The priests, from time immemorial, were the only ones authorized to perform the temple sacrifices. They were a very closed group. Only those who could demonstrate specific ancestry, inherited from the legendary Aaron, could be admitted as priests. This ensured the necessary survival of the priests despite their loss of authority in legal and educational matters.
The only temple admitted by the Jews was that of Jerusalem, a peculiarity that distinguished them from the rest of the world’s peoples, centralizing and granting enormous power to the few priests who were supposed to attend to this central temple of the Jewish faith. All sacrificial offerings, of which the priests received a share, had to be made in the temple of Jerusalem and could not be made remotely. This concentration of power significantly benefited the priestly community, which had always been a privileged group in the status of Jewish groups.
The need to ensure legitimate ancestry meant very strict and rigorous legislation regarding which marriages were valid for a priest. There were registers in Jerusalem recording the detailed genealogy of each priest, and any aspiring priest had to be very careful to ensure that these records were kept up-to-date and error-free.
Despite these strictures, priests could marry women who were not daughters of priests as long as they were not prostitutes, women without virginity, divorced, or prisoners of war (who were considered suspects of having been raped). They could, however, marry a widow, but only under certain circumstances. All these careful regulations have their origin in the book of Leviticus (Lev 21:7-8).
The reason for all this madness about genealogical ancestry lies in the sacred status that the Jews granted to their priests. They were special people, who could not come into contact with anything that would cause ritual impurity. Their temple rites were the only ones the Jewish people performed, so they were required to perform them in a state of extreme purity. If the Pharisees were legalistic to the point of exhaustion on these matters, the priests were three times more so. Their obsession with purity was so extreme that they never attended funeral ceremonies. Potential contact with a corpse would have disqualified them from performing their rituals, so a Jewish priest never officiated at a funeral. Furthermore, they did not even participate in mourning ceremonies for a close relative. In short: a priest was never to be near a corpse, no matter what it was, even that of his own wife or child.
Priestly purity included not only potential contact with impure things, but also any physical problem with the priest himself. Illnesses, deformities, skin blemishes—dozens of things could disqualify a priest, either temporarily or permanently. However, they always maintained their status as priests for their entire lives and continued to receive their share of the temple’s earnings.
It is unknown at what exact age someone could begin their priesthood, but it is estimated to have been at least twenty. The aspirant was carefully examined, his genealogies were verified on both his father’s and mother’s sides, and if he was finally deemed suitable, the act of consecration was performed.
This rite lasted a total of seven days and consisted (Ex 29, Lv 8) of a purification bath or baptism, the donning of sacred garments, and a series of ritual sacrifices. Certain parts of the aspirant’s body were to be sprinkled with sacrificial blood, as were his garments. Blood, let us not forget, was considered the primary element for total cleansing of the individual, since it eliminated sins. Another rite consisted of the “filling of the hands,” that is, placing a portion of the sacrificed animal in the aspirant’s hands. The rite of anointing seems to have been reserved only for the high priest.
Even though there was only one temple to serve, and the number of Jewish priests was very low compared to the number of priests in other religions of that time, it was still high enough that they could not all officiate together. For this reason, they were divided into twenty-four families or shifts. From the Babylonian exile only four priestly families returned (Ezra 10:18-22), but these families were then divided into groups and assigned which days each would be responsible for serving in the temple.
Each of the twenty-four sections was in turn divided into others. Their number varied from five to nine for each shift. The main sections were given the general designation of mhlqwt (classes) or byt 'bwt (houses of fathers) in that each consisted of a family, or msmrwt (overseers), in that they were responsible for the temple service. In Greek the main divisions were called patria, efimeria or efimeris, and the subdivisions fulí. The heads of shifts and subdivisions were called srym or r’sym, or also r’s hmsmr.
Not all the classes had the same prestige. The class of Jojarib, from which the high priests and Hasmonean princes came, had an advantage. The families from which the high priests came had more weight and authority than the families of lesser priests. The economic and social differences between some priestly families and others were very large. The privileged families lived in opulence, while some priests, restricted in their remuneration, could become destitute. It is not surprising that the poor priests supported the revolt against Rome when it occurred, even though the wealthy priestly families were all against it.
Originally, the Levites were nothing more than priests and priestly families who performed rituals outside the temple in Jerusalem. When all rituals were prohibited except those in Jerusalem, the foreign priests began to be called Levites to distinguish them from the priests of Jerusalem. From then on, they could no longer carry out their activities outside the holy city. Finally, legislation established this distinction and it was recorded (Numbers 18:1-7). The priests could officiate at the altar and the sanctuary, while the Levites would perform the rest of the tabernacle services, such as slaughtering and preparing the sacrificial victims, but they were never allowed to access the altar or the interior of the sanctuary.
For practical purposes, the Levites were like a priestly caste. They also formed a closed group; they also had to demonstrate genealogical ancestry, in this case as supposed heirs of Levi, one of the twelve patriarchs of Israel. They also had to comply with a rigorous system of marriages and registration of their descendants in the registers. Similarly, they had a division into duty groups. Initially, very few returned from exile, but over time, they acquired the same division into twenty-four groups as the priests. Over time, and especially around the time of Jesus and later, the Levites were divided into three groups: Levites in general, temple singers, and gatekeepers. Each group had its own organization in twenty-four groups, with leaders for each group (rsym or srym), and each with their own responsibilities.
Both priests and Levites did not live solely in Jerusalem. The number of families residing in the holy city must have been no more than one-fifth of the total number of priests and Levites distributed throughout different cities in Judea, Perea, Galilee, and other regions.
Originally, the amounts received by the priests were very meager. As time went on, the divine character given to the priestly office made them so important that even the scribes, who often distrusted them, could not prevent the taxes or tithes granted to them from growing (UB 69:5.9, UB 135:2.3).
In Jesus’ time, the priests were entitled to the following earnings from all members of the Jewish people: from sacrifices, from payments in kind for agricultural products, and from payments in kind for livestock products.
¶ I. Sacrifices
First, they received all the atoning and penitential sacrifices. The fat of the animals was burned on the altar, but all the meat passed to the priests. This was anciently the other way around. An offering was made on the altar, but the entire meat was consumed by the offerer at a ritual banquet as part of the offering. (UB 125:1.4)
Secondly, the grain offerings were also almost entirely for the priests, since only a small portion was burned on the altar. These offerings were quite common, although one might have expected otherwise. They were usually offered by individuals, but they turned out to be a mandatory supplementary sacrifice that had to be made every time an animal sacrifice was made.
Thirdly, the shewbread, which had to be renewed weekly, was also for the priests. It was not a large amount, but it was for them too. (UB 147:6.4)
These three emoluments were earnings of the priests, but they were considered “most holy” and could be consumed only within the temple and only by them, not by relatives.
Then there were what were known as “thankgiving sacrifices” or “communion sacrifices,” in which the offerer was required to consume a part. The priests received the breast and the right shoulder, a not inconsiderable part of each animal, but it could also be consumed by them and their relatives outside the temple.
Finally, there were the sacrifices called “holocausts,” which were those completely burned on the altar, and from which the priests took only the skins, the smallest profit. Although when one considers the number of animals sacrificed in a year, it seemed a truly juicy income.
¶ II. Payments in Kind of Agricultural Products
The sacrifices, although they represented a substantial sum for the priests, providing them with substantial quantities of meat, grain, and hides, and some of these items could be sold outside the temple, were only a small fraction of their earnings. The bulk of their income came from payments in kind or equivalent cash made outside of the sacrifices.
One of the most important payments was the firstfruits, or bikurim. They were offered from the so-called “seven species,” that is, the most cultivated crops in Palestine: wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and honey. The offering usually took place in the summer. The starting point for the offering was Shavuot, or Pentecost, and there was enough time until Sukkot, the Feast of Tabernacles. The people usually celebrated it in a very festive manner, since it was not in vain a celebration of having successfully completed the exhausting harvest. Those who lived near Jerusalem brought the fresh produce, and those who lived far away brought it dried. They often formed a procession led by a bull destined for a communion sacrifice, with gilded horns and crowned with olive branches. The procession was solemnly received by the priests, who guided the locals to the temple to hand over their baskets and hampers. An entire treatise of the Mishnah was devoted to detailing these bikurim. The firstfruits were not only a considerable amount of the harvest that was placed in the hands of the priests (a quantity difficult to quantify), but also the best part, the first fruits, and therefore, the freshest and highest quality. This evidently allowed the priests to resell this product at a substantial profit.
Another of the most important payments to the priests was the terumah, which was one-fiftieth of the entire crop produced, not only the important spices. This two percent of the field’s production represented another substantial benefit for the clergy.
But the largest and most important payment of all was the tithe. Once the previous offerings of bikurim and terumah had been separated from everything else, the farmer had to set aside a tenth to be taken to Jerusalem. The Gospels clearly explain how seriously the clergy took the delivery of this payment. All products, even the least valuable, were required to pay the tithe. Even products such as mint, dill, and cumin, which were of little profit, had to pay it (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42). The substantial income from this concept did not, however, go directly to the priests. It was primarily for the Levites, who otherwise would not see a single income, but indirectly the Levites were to give a tenth to the priests.
The situation was even worse for the long-suffering taxpayers of Jesus’ time when we consider that after separating this tithe, they still had to separate a second tithe, or maaser sheni. This, at least, was not intended directly for the priests or Levites. It was an amount that was to be consumed in Jerusalem during the festivals. Many pious Jews used this second tithe for sacrifices and offerings, so that, if not all of it, a good portion also ended up in the hands of the clergy.
The final payment was called the “dough offering” or hallah. It was applied to wheat, barley, spelt, oats, and rye. The offering was not to be made in the form of flour but rather dough. It represented one twenty-fourth of the harvest of those products for a private farmer, and one fortieth if it was a baker.
¶ III. Payments in Kind for Livestock Products
The ancient legislation established that the firstborn male of animals was to be offered as a sacrifice to God. This legislation was later amended to state that it had to be placed in the hands of the priests. Furthermore, although no such legislation existed for human firstborns, it was established that children had to be redeemed from sacrifice by paying a tax (called a “ransom”), which also went to the priests.
Thus, we had the following income for the priests:
- The firstborn male of the so-called “pure cattle,” meaning primarily bulls, rams, and goats, was delivered in kind. If the animal was found pure, that is, without any blemishes or defects, it was considered “holy,” sacrificed on the altar, its blood sprinkled on the altar, the fat burned there, but the rest of the animal, the most substantial and useful part, passed to the priests. If the animal had any defects and could not be considered worthy of the altar, then the priests rubbed their hands even more, for the animal passed to them whole. (On this abuse, see UB 173:1.1-2.)
- The firstborn male of the so-called “unclean” species, namely, the horse, the ass, and the camel, was to be redeemed by paying a tax, according to Josephus, of one and a half shekels. Payment in shekels had the advantage for the priests that it was a coin for use only in the temple, and therefore had to be exchanged, and in the exchange the priests again made a percentage of the profit.
- In the case of a child, the firstborn son in a family was to be “redeemed” at one month of age by paying five shekels. It was not necessary to present the child at the temple, as is often thought when reading Luke 2:22. This tax was inescapable. Every family, whether rich or poor, was obligated to pay it without exception. If we consider that 5 shekels were approximately 20 denarii, and that one denarius was equivalent to a day’s wages for a laborer in the field, the “redemption” of the firstborn son of a poor family could leave them in the most abject poverty. Jesus was not indifferent to these injustices and openly denounced them: UB 175:1.14.
In the case of animals sacrificed in the temple for whatever reason, the priests had the right to keep three portions of the entire animal: the shoulder, the two jaws, and the rump.
Finally, the priests also had the right to another part of the livestock income: that from shearing. The minimum number of sheep, between two and five, to participate in this tax made its application milder for poor families who only had a few animals. But all others had to deliver five sela from Judea or ten from Galilee to satisfy this tax. [1]
¶ IV. Extraordinary Offerings
The emoluments of the priests did not end with all the above. Another series of offerings could still be delivered to the temple, of which the priests received a portion. An individual could consecrate themselves, and to “ransom” themselves, they would pay a fee. It was a significant amount: 50 shekels for a male and 30 for a female. Animals, houses, and plots of land could also be consecrated (UB 69:9.13). Animals could be given in kind, but property, again, was given only in money.
The anathema, which was a votive offering that could not be redeemed, remained entirely with the priests.
Finally, stolen or ill-gotten property, when it was impossible to return it to its rightful owners, was money that was kept by the priests. Thus we see Judas Iscariot returning the coins in payment for his treason in the temple. He does not consider himself to have acquired these coins lawfully.
¶ V. The Half Shekel
The annual half-shekel (or two drachmas or denarii) that every Jew was required to pay to the priests for the maintenance of the Temple was no longer a cultic rite. It was a simple tax introduced in recent times. In ancient times, the maintenance and costs of the Temple were borne by the king, but later it became an obligation of Jewish citizens. It is mentioned in the Gospel (Mt 17:24) and was required to be paid by every male Israelite twenty years of age or older, whether rich or poor, and had to be paid in the “official” currency of Tyre. The time set for payment was the month of adar (February-March), and the method followed was through a collector who went to each community, gathering the collection and then sending it to Jerusalem. (UB 173:1.3)
¶ VI. The Wood Offering
Another annual fee paid in the middle of the month of Ab was for firewood to maintain the altar of burnt offerings. Each family contributed what they could, and any type of firewood was accepted, except olive and vine wood.
¶ VII. Freewill Offerings
It was not uncommon for many devout Jews, apart from all annual obligations, to still make contributions to the temple. Offerings of objects to be used as temple ornaments were common, especially in the form of clusters of gold for adorning the temple portal or for gold-plating doors. Even donations from Gentiles were welcome. In the Gospels, we have the story of a poor old woman who contributed her few coins to the temple treasury (Mk 12:41-44; Lk 22:1-4) in one of the thirteen trumpet-shaped chests that were used to cover some of the liturgical expenses. The priests also received a good portion of this money, since they kept a portion of the sacrificial animals purchased with it.
This concludes the series of concepts by which the priests and Levites received their income. What is not clear to experts is whether all Jews contributed to this income, including those living in foreign Roman provinces, or only the inhabitants of the Holy Land. Certainly, no foreigner came to Jerusalem with goods in kind unless the distance to the city was short. Typically, contributions from Diaspora Jews were in the form of money.
¶ References
- Emil Schürer, Historia del pueblo judío en tiempos de Jesús. II Instituciones políticas y religiosas (History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus. II Political and Religious Institutions), Ediciones Cristiandad, 1985, pp. 343-365.
¶ Notes
A Judean sela was equivalent to two temple shekels, but if it was the usual coin of Galilee, since it was minted with less silver, more had to be paid. ↩︎